The sudden appearance of foreign settlers on Indigenous lands in North America marked the beginning of a centuries-long disproportionate relationship between Indigenous people and American colonists. A semblance of equality was initially displayed during the famed Thanksgiving feast held between the Wampanoag Tribe and early colonists but diminished as American settlers soon afterward massacred countless Indigenous peoples, forced the relocation of whole tribes, and eliminated Indigenous cultures to promote colonial development. This development soon turned into the creation of the United States of America and the trend of Indigenous suppression continued. The asymmetrical link between them was evident especially throughout the 19th and 20th centuries as Indigenous tribes were at the full disposal of the United States government and were subjected to displacement and forced integration in American boarding schools. While this does illuminate the unequal balance between Indigenous communities and the United States, the harrowing nature of this dichotomy is fully exemplified through a study of the United States’ war against Western wildfire. The United States’ collaboration with Indigenous communities and subsequent quick adoption of learned Indigenous fire prevention methods starkly contrasts their continued ignorance of the Indigenous amid the outbreak of wildfire and highlights the uneven ties between Indigenous people and the United States.
As the methodology of Manifest Destiny popularized throughout the 19th century, it was partially suppressed by the unique threat of wildfire. In contrast to the East, the West presents a perfect environment for wildfires to increase in reach and intensity due to the presence of fuel through the form of dry pine needles, shrubs, and grasses in addition to its extreme weather, especially in the summer. The presence of dry foliage and hot, unpredictable weather that the summer months provided was deadly and marked the period known as the fire season. This season presented a real threat to settlers and was realized as intentional fires set by settlers to help clear land for town development quickly evolved into wildfires. These growing issues with fire sparked the beginning of the United States’ centuries-long battle against it. The United States’ push towards fire suppression commenced with the passage of the Act for the Government and Protection of Indians. Passed in 1850, its main purpose was to eliminate Indigenous peoples in California from their native lands but it additionally eradicated the practice of setting intentional fires in the state. While the government assumed the move would mark a step towards dissipating wildfires as a whole, in reality, it indirectly increased its risk.
The elements contained in the Act for the Government and Protection of Indians negatively impacted Indigenous communities, including the provision banning intentional burning. The ban on intentional burning also impacted the tribal custom of cultural burning which described the same innate practice but different fundamental purposes. While intentional burning was performed to mainly clear out land for development, cultural burning was performed by many tribes throughout California and the West to mitigate wildfire risk, cultivate biodiversity, maintain the land, and bolster nature’s resistance to fire. Indigenous communities lit smaller, controllable fires in areas that contained elevated amounts of wildfire fuel like brush or grasses. The type of brush and grass that were burned varied from tribe to tribe. For example, the Yurok and Karuk tribes of Northern California burned hazelnut shrub stems. This burning results in a decrease in wildfire risk as the incineration of brush and grasses eliminates their presence, removing the fuel needed for wildfires to increase in reach. Setting fires also aids in improving soil quality and promoting the growth of specific plant species that are more resilient to heightened temperatures that fire introduces. Indigenous communities also had cultural ties to burning. The burned hazelnut stems trained the stems to grow stronger and straighter, increasing resistance to fire and creating material used in Yoruk and Karuk baby baskets and fish traps as a byproduct. To settlers and the United States government, these cultural burns were not seen as fire prevention methods or a form of cultural expression that it was in reality, but instead as intentional acts to “destroy that which is of value to the white man” (Lands of the Arid Region). This perspective in their eyes justified the removal of Indigenous populations from their lands and the elimination of cultural burning on legal grounds. While the law satisfied settlers and the government, the lack of regular burning caused forests to overgrow and become full of fire-prone vegetation, creating an ideal environment for uncontrollable wildfires.
The accumulation of dry brush, grass, and overgrown forests was partly the cause of the magnitude of the Great Fires of 1910 which burned countless acres in the Northwest and ended the lives of scores of people. In response to the tragedy, the government reaffirmed its staunch stance against fire and called for its complete suppression. It worked towards this through the promotion and implementation of agendas like the 10 A.M. policy, which aimed at eradicating fires no later than 10 A.M. the following morning. While this ideology of fire elimination dominated the first half of the 20th century, a complete reversal of perspective was introduced in the late 1960s, as research done at the time emphasized the benefits of Indigenous cultural and intentional burning. While sparingly adopted by the National Forest Service and similar entities at times, this purposeful burning was not widely implemented due to apprehension amongst the government and the general public. The push for the implementation of intentional burning died down until the late 2010s. The combination of climate change and the accumulation of wildfire fuel and overgrown forests laid the foundation for some of the deadliest and largest fires ever recorded in US history. The 2018 Camp Fire, at the time, was the deadliest and most destructive wildfire in California’s history and the most expensive natural disaster in 2018. A few years later in 2021, the Dixie Fire raged in Northern California and became the largest fire in California history. These two record-breaking fires were a wake-up call and reinvigorated efforts towards finding methods to reduce the destructiveness of wildfire and dwindle its regularity. The concept of purposeful burning, as a result, was revisited.
A 2019 Stanford-led study in collaboration with the U.S. Forest Service and the Yurok and Karuk tribes of Northern California deduced that incorporating the mechanisms of cultural burning into firefighting techniques would provide a massive step towards mitigating wildfire risks. The study’s collaboration with the Yurok and Karuk tribes is significant, as these findings were based on tribal and cultural knowledge. This partnership caused the study to additionally focus on how the incorporation of cultural burning would not only benefit the United States’ firefighting efforts but Indigenous communities as well. The study concluded that the reimplementation of cultural burning would positively impact Indigenous communities as it reintroduces an important aspect of their livelihood. It argues that the reintroduction of cultural burning could “ease food insecurity among American Indian communities” as “traditional food sources have declined precipitously due in part to the suppression of prescribed [cultural] burns that kill acorn-eating pests and promote deer populations by creating beneficial habitat and increasing plants’ nutritional content” (Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment). Because of the dual positive impact cultural burning has on Indigenous communities and American firefighting efforts, cultural burning was termed an example of “good fire”, signifying the stark contrast between the destructive nature of wildfire and the advantageous elements cultural burning offers. This study, in combination with others, highlighted the overall benefit of the practice of cultural burning and inspired an increase in its implementation.
In 2021, the benefits of the application of cultural burning in firefighting were already being observed. In the same year, the KNP Complex Fire commenced as a result of the combination of the Colony and Paradise Fires that had been dually raging in Northern California days prior. As the fire spread, panic struck as it started to inch toward Sequoia National Park and its largest concentration of historic Sequoia trees. In desperation to save the famed trees, firefighters and hotshot crews raced to wrap protective foil around the bases and remove ignitable vegetation. Miraculously, the fire stopped its course before reaching the sequoia trees. This was because a cultural burn was previously performed in 2019 in the general area so as the Complex fire approached, its momentum halted. This highlighted the effectiveness of cultural burning and is further emphasized as surrounding areas that possessed some populations of sequoia trees that did not have cultural burns performed prior succumbed to the fire. To signify the impact that cultural burning had against the KNP Complex Fire, California Governor Gavin Newson a few months later signed bill SB 322 which added legal protections for those who perform cultural burning for public benefit, further allowing the practice to be adopted by firefighters and Indigenous populations in which the concept stemmed from. Now, fire has essentially become a fire management tool, and it is all thanks to the innovations and culture of Indigenous people.
On the contrary, while Indigenous communities have relayed cultural information to aid the American government in its war against wildfire, the onset of wildfire negatively impacts Indigenous communities at heightened levels compared to other groups and displays how the government still suppresses and ignores the needs of Indigenous populations. From the moment settlers arrived in America, Indigenous populations have faced unprecedented levels of injustice and have long put Indigenous communities in disadvantaged positions in comparison to other groups. Thus, they are much further affected when faced with disaster situations like wildfire. Because of forced relocations, Indigenous populations commonly live in rural areas more prone to wildfires and are further removed from relief centers. Wildfire smoke especially has presented a unique threat to Indigenous communities. As wildfires rage, Indigenous populations are faced with dangerous levels of smoke for extended periods. This causes health risks, especially asthma. In a 2018 study performed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health, it was discovered that Indigenous people were 20% more likely to have asthma in comparison to other groups. Additionally, it also causes limited visibility levels, which prevents Indigenous people from fully utilizing their land.
Another thing to consider is the socioeconomic status of Indigenous people. Economically, resulting from historical injustice, Indigenous people suffer from an increased poverty rate. In California, it was estimated that the poverty rate for Indigenous people residing in the state was at a staggering 18%, limiting the scope of economic self-management. Recent technological advancements like air filters and air-conditioners have been found to alleviate the presence of smoke in homes and reduce its impact on the human body. However, their high expense has prevented such innovations from being a norm in Indigenous dwellings. This economic deprivation has caused Indigenous communities to turn to the federal government for assistance, and the federal government has severely failed to meet their needs. For example, evacuation plans are a key facet for most wildfire-prone communities in the United States and Canada as they help to facilitate smooth and efficient evacuation to limit casualties from fire. In Indigenous communities, this is an absent feature. In her paper focusing on the impact of wildfire on Indigenous populations, Isabella Thurston explains why this absence is critical. Her paper focuses specifically on the Indigenous communities of Canada, but the problem is similar for US-based Native communities as well. She writes, “When it comes to Indigenous communities preparing for emergencies such as wildfires, they are often provided with inadequate funding, limited resources, and a lack of support from governments and external sources….the absence of resources and support makes it extremely difficult to put together a successful evacuation plan.” (The Impact of Wildfires on Indigenous Communities). Also, in addition to a lack of resources, Indigenous communities are deprived of the presence of hotshot crews and firefighters to facilitate evacuation and protect Indigenous communities from fire risk. All this places Native people in an unfavorable situation, helpless and ignored when wildfire strikes.
Finally, it is important to touch on how wildfires gravely affect Indigenous people culturally. Indigenous communities have a special relationship with nature and especially the land that they live on. Due to the forced relocation of Indigenous communities, many tribes adapted and created new cultural connections with the lands they were allocated. The onslaught of wildfire threatens these connections as it incites tribal evacuations and relocation, further disconnecting Indigenous tribes from their land. In events where relocation is necessitated, cultural rebuilding is difficult as some Indigenous traditions are specifically tied to their original lands. Indigenous communities are then forced to rebuild entire aspects of their culture which completely dissipates routines and a general sense of normalcy in communities. Wildfire’s severe danger to ecosystems also presents a heightened danger to Indigenous populations as Indigenous communities rely on their local ecosystems for essential supplies like medicinal plants and food. The elimination of such tribal plants is potentially fatal, as it decreases the availability of life-saving medications and introduces food insecurity. In summary, the continued threat of wildfire harms pivotal components of Indigenous life and survival, placing an additional mental, physical, and emotional toll on Indigenous communities.
The relaying of impactful Indigenous fire suppression techniques and the ignorance of the disproportionately negative effect wildfire has on Indigenous populations physically, socioeconomically, and culturally demonstrates this continued trend of Indigenous assistance and American ignorance and suppression. The asymmetric unfavorable repercussions of wildfire on Indigenous communities in comparison to other groups is deplorable, especially considering the massive strides taken in American firefighting resulting from Indigenous knowledge. The mechanics of cultural burning have provided a feasible solution to efforts centered on the reduction of the commonality of severe wildfires. The elimination of accumulated dry brush, grasses, and similar vegetation removes fuel, greatly decreasing the likelihood of wildfires spreading in pre-burned areas. The positive impact that cultural burning has had on American firefighting and the United States’ historical tyrannical attitudes towards Indigenous people should prompt the government to find solutions to reduce the risks wildfires pose to tribal communities. Special attention should be paid to the severe health risks wildfire smoke poses, and funding should be dedicated to curtailing its impact by investing in studied alleviators like air conditioners and filters. The socioeconomic disadvantage Indigenous communities possess should not be overlooked, as this causes problems not just when facing natural disasters, but in other critical aspects as well. The Federal Indian Trust Responsibility outlines the written dedication of the American Government to protecting tribal treaty rights, lands, assets, and resources, and properly carrying out other federal law mandates concerning Indigenous tribes. The government’s repeated ignorance of Indigenous tribes breaks this clause. Indigenous peoples have long given critical information to the government in its war against wildfire. It is only right that the government gives back to the Indigenous and further eradicates the danger wildfire poses to their communities.
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